Buddhism 101 Read online

  The Six Yogas of Naropa is one of the tantric practices unique to the Transmission Command School. It is a system of advanced tantric meditation passed down by Naropa that represents the completion stage teachings. Mahamudra practice is explained according to interpretations of sutra and tantra—with the goal being direct understanding of buddha-nature. Mahamudra was an effort to get back to the basics of meditation practice much like Chan did in China. Each of the schools within the Kagyu tradition approach Mahamudra differently.

  THE GELUG TRADITION (THE VIRTUOUS SCHOOL)

  The Virtuous School could be called the reform movement of Tibetan Buddhism. Started by Tsongkhapa in the fifteenth century, Gelug can be traced back to the Bound by Command School and was greatly influenced by the teachings of Atisha. Tsongkhapa reiterated the emphasis that Atisha had made on the monastic traditions and the importance of the guru. Tsongkhapa was extremely well educated in various schools of Buddhism and engaged in extensive meditation practices as well. The emphasis in the Gelug tradition is on monastic and academic study. Few masters, if any, are laypeople. Monks who train in the Gelug tradition receive advanced degrees in Buddhist philosophy and thought. These monks are known as geshes.

  The Dalai Lamas come from the Virtuous School of Tibetan Buddhism and have been the spiritual and secular leaders of Tibet ever since. However, the Dalai Lamas are not the heads of the Virtuous School itself. The Dalai Lamas receive training in many if not all the Tibetan schools of Buddhism, and the leader of the Virtuous School is the abbot of the Ganden Monastery.

  COMMON THREADS

  All of the principal Tibetan traditions of Buddhism have more in common than not. The energy behind Tibetan Buddhism is the spirit of Avalokiteshvara (“Lord who looks down in compassion”), the bodhisattva of compassion. The Tibetans believe that anyone can attain enlightenment. The bedrock of Tibetan spiritual culture is the commitment that each individual makes to help all sentient beings toward enlightenment. These Vajrayana schools come from the Mahayana tradition and mix native and tantric elements into their practices.

  The role of the guru (or lama) in Tibetan spirituality is key, especially when it comes to the more sophisticated tantric practices, for which a student needs attentive guidance. The mantra Om mani padme hum (Hail to the jewel in the lotus) is woven into the very fabric of their society. This mantra is ubiquitous. It is on the lips of all Tibetans, on the walls of buildings, on prayer flags, in art, in jewelry, in stonework, on prayer wheels. The mantra captures the spirit of Tibetan Buddhism.

  Protector Against Peril

  * * *

  According to Buddhist scholar Michael Willis, Avalokiteshvara was invoked as a protector against the “Eight Great Perils” of the first millennium: shipwrecks, wrongful imprisonment, thieves, conflagrations, lions, poisonous snakes, wild elephants, and disease. Avalokiteshvara became the feminine Guanyin in China and Kannon in Japan. Avalokiteshvara is also known as Chenrezi in Tibet and remains male with his feminine aspects as Tara.

  * * *

  Tara

  Tara is one of the important bodhisattvas in Tibetan Buddhism. She is the female embodiment of compassion (karuna) and loving-kindness (maitri in Sanskrit, metta in Pali). Atisha introduced the cult of Tara to Tibet in the eleventh century. According to myth, Tara was born from a lotus growing in a pool formed by tears of compassion shed by Avalokiteshvara when he saw the enormity of suffering that humanity experiences. Tara is also the mother of all buddhas. She also comes in different colors—green for divine energy and white for transcendent wisdom. In another myth, Amitabha Buddha radiated his thoughts into a lake where a lotus grew and later revealed Avalokiteshvara. He then changed himself into a monkey and mated with Tara to produce the ancestors of the Tibetan people.

  THE DALAI LAMA

  Bodhisattva of Compassion

  The current Dalai Lama is regarded as the fourteenth incarnation of the bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteshvara. The original Dalai Lama came out of the Gelug or Virtuous School of Tibetan Buddhism. This third teacher in the Gelug lineage appeared as the incarnation of the compassionate bodhisattva and was subsequently named the Dalai Lama, or Ocean of Wisdom.

  The current Dalai Lama was born on July 6, 1935, to a family of poor farmers in the province of Amdo in Tibet. His eldest brother, Thubten Jigme Norbu, had already been recognized as a reincarnation of a high lama (tulku), Taktser Rinpoche, so it was a surprise that another Rinpoche would be found within the family.

  * * *

  “For as long as space endures, and for as long as living beings remain, I, too, abide to dispel the misery of the world.”

  —The Dalai Lama

  * * *

  A tulku is a special lama, one who is reincarnated from a previous teacher. Since the Dalai Lama is the fourteenth in his lineage, he is a tulku. Thousands of tulkus have been recognized over the centuries and most of these have been men. The Dalia Lama has considered the idea that he will return as the fifteenth Dalia Lama in female form. The identification of a tulku was portrayed in the film Kundun, where monks disguised as peasants arrived at the future Dalia Lama’s home when he was a child of three years old. The monks were following clues provided by the thirteenth Dalai Lama—dreams or information provided by oracles to find candidate children. Once children are identified they are examined for special marks or signs and their parents interviewed regarding their moral character. Finally, a test is provided where the young child must identify items that belonged to his predecessor, picking them out from similar items. If he can do this correctly, he will be designated a tulku. Stories abide about tulkus being able to remember details from their previous lives, including His Holiness the Dalai Lama. Tulkus are also known by the title Rinpoche (“Precious One”). The Dalai Lama is not only the reincarnated tulku of the Gelugpa clan and secular and religious leader of Tibet, he is also believed to be the reincarnation of Avalokiteshvara.

  The thirteenth Dalai Lama had died in 1933, and while his body was in its period of sitting in state, his head mysteriously turned toward the area near Amdo—this was just one of the clues that sent the search party on its way.

  Once the search party had narrowed down their focus, they found Tenzin Gyatso. The small boy is said to have immediately recognized one of the monks and when handed some items as a test he was able to pick out the ones belonging to the thirteenth Dalai Lama; he is said to have cried out, “It is mine!”

  The three-year-old child was taken away from his family to be trained and prepared for his role as the fourteenth in the succession of Dalai Lamas. He was eventually reunited with his family and continued his intensive education and training. At the age of fifteen, with the Chinese invasion threatening the horizon, the Dalai Lama was formally made the leader of Tibet. The young leader tried to secure the assistance of Great Britain and America but was turned down. Tibet was going to have to face the might of the huge Chinese government alone. On March 17, 1958, the Dalai Lama consulted with the Nechung Oracle and was instructed to leave Tibet. For nine years, the Tibetan people had tried to hold back a full-scale invasion of the Chinese government, but in the winter of 1959, the Dalai Lama knew it was time to go. Disguised as a soldier, he slipped out of the country.

  The first thirteen Dalai Lamas were:

  1. Gedun Drub (1391–1474)

  2. Gedun Gyatso (1475–1542)

  3. Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588)

  4. Yonten Gyatso (1589–1616)

  5. Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso (1617–1682)

  6. Tsang-yang Gyatso (1683–1706)

  7. Kezang Gyatso (1708–1757)

  8. Jampel Gyatso (1758–1804)

  9. Luntok Gyatso (1806–1815)

  10. Tshultrim Gyatso (1816–1837)

  11. Khedrup Gyatso (1838–1856)

  12. Trinley Gyatso (1856–1875)

  13. Thubten Gyatso (1876–1933)

  Tibetan Buddhism in different forms has found great popularity in the United States. There are monasteries and study centers for th
e various forms of Tibetan Buddhism all over the country. One of the most well-known teachers of Tibetan Buddhism to emigrate to the United States was Chögyam Trungpa.

  He fled Tibet at the age of twenty in 1959. In 1970 he moved to the United States and established his first American meditation center. He started Naropa University—the first Buddhist-inspired university in North America. There are more than one hundred Shambhala Meditation Centers throughout the world that were founded by Chögyam Trungpa. He was a prolific author, including the classic, Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism, and was responsible for bringing many teachers to the United States from Tibet. Although he died in 1987 at the age of forty-seven, he left a legacy of study and education that continues strongly to this day. The Shambhala Sun (now published as Lion’s Roar), a bimonthly periodical, recently celebrated its thirtieth anniversary.

  CHINESE BUDDHISM

  Chan and Pure Land

  As Chinese interest in Buddhism grew, a need for texts was established. Buddhism slowly took root in China as new texts were brought into the country and translated, thus becoming available to practitioners. By the seventh century, different schools of Buddhism arose in China. The two most prominent schools were the Chan and the Pure Land schools. Chan Buddhism would come to be known in the West and Japan as Zen Buddhism. Both Chan and Zen mean “meditation.”

  Bodhidharma Enters China

  Early in the sixth century Emperor Wu of China was a devout student of Buddhism. He had built many temples, translated many sutras, and considered himself well versed in the teachings of the Buddha. When he heard that Bodhidharma, a renowned Buddhist monk, had arrived in China, he requested a meeting with the Indian monastic. In reference to the great works he had done in the service of Buddhism through the construction of monasteries and translation of core texts, Emperor Wu asked Bodhidharma, “What merit have I accumulated for all my good to Buddhism?”

  “None,” Bodhidharma replied.

  Emperor Wu was shocked; this answer contradicted everything he thought he knew about Buddhism. It was a common belief that good deeds developed merit points. Giving food to a mendicant monk was considered good karma and insurance for a good rebirth, especially if the monk you gave to was a good student. Wu considered himself knowledgeable about Buddhism and wanted to engage Bodhidharma in conversation. He became defensive and decided to test the newcomer. “What is the meaning of enlightenment?” he asked.

  “Vast emptiness, nothing sacred,” Bodhidharma said.

  This, too, must have confused the great emperor. This was not in line with his beliefs and he did not understand what it meant. Emperor Wu then asked in frustration, “Who are you?”

  And Bodhidharma replied, “I don’t know.”

  Emperor Wu still did not understand what Bodhidhama was telling him.

  Shaolin Kung Fu

  * * *

  While Bodhidharma was at Shaolin Temple, he found the monks there to be in terrible physical condition. He helped them with their meditation practice and also helped them get back into top physical condition. It was here at Shaolin Temple that Shaolin Kung Fu was born.

  * * *

  Bodhidharma left the frustrated emperor and made his way up the mountains to Shaolin. It was here in a small cave that he meditated for nine years straight, facing a blank wall. Legend has it that he became frustrated with himself for falling asleep, so he cut off his eyelids to ensure he didn’t fall asleep again. Artworks depicting Bodhidharma often show him with eyes wide open.

  Bodhidharma, who personifies a serious commitment to meditation practice and the concept of emptiness, was the founder of Chan in China. The Chan school of Buddhism endeavored to keep Buddhism simple, and at its heart was the desire to get down to basics. It had few of the features of the Vajrayana school of meditation. Chan Buddhism promotes the belief that meditation is the direct route to enlightenment—and with meditation buddha-nature is revealed.

  Bodhidharma became the first Chinese patriarch, starting a transmission of Chan from one person to another, from mind to mind, until the present day, just as the Buddha passed the teachings so many years before.

  CHINA: PURE LAND

  The other main school of Buddhism to start in China around the same time was called Pure Land. This school of Buddhism, unlike Bodhidharma’s Chan, did believe in a system of merits and also promoted the idea that there is more than one Buddha.

  Adherents of this school also believe that this realm has many different fields, the best being that of paradise, or Pure Land.

  A purified field surrounds buddhas and bodhisattvas. Out of their great compassion they create a space around them that is uncontaminated. This space is available for those who wish to join them. It is attributed to Amitabha Buddha (the Buddha of Infinite Light). Amitabha is known as Amituo Fo in China and Amida Butsu in Japan. The Pure Land is also known as Sukhavati (“Abode of Bliss”)

  Pure Land Buddhists believe in a paradise after death. Amitabha is host there. If you invoke the name of Amitabha (Namo Amituo Fo), you will be reborn into the Pure Land. Pure Land in your mind is the place where enlightenment takes place; it is not enlightenment itself.

  Therefore, in Pure Land Buddhism, if you invoke the name of the Buddha you invoke the reality of Pure Land. This practice was less rigorous than the Chan practice and found widespread acceptability. One could be reborn into a paradise here at any time. All you had to do was recite the Buddha’s name over and over, and paradise was yours. There were no impediments to enlightenment once you attained Pure Land, so much of the work of practice was alleviated.

  The Jingtu Lun is an important Pure Land text that outlines five forms of devotion:

  • Expressing reverence for Amitabha Buddha

  • Praising Amitabha’s virtue by reciting his name

  • Spoken aspirations to be born in the Pure Land

  • Contemplation on the physical form of Amitabha, bodhisattvas who live in the Pure Land, and the Pure Land itself

  • Transferring one’s own merit to assist others in reaching the Pure Land

  According to Buddhist scholar Michael Willis, “The Pure Land is described as a kind of paradise devoid of diversion, such as women and conflict, and superior to any heaven because Amituo resides there, prepared to preach the Dharma to all those who ask for assistance.”

  The Pure Land practice is comparable to the bodhisattva path, and its advocate Daochuo (562–645) argued that it would be more expedient in that degenerate age because Amitabha was there to help. The Pure Land path was easier too and therefore more accessible to common people.

  Pure Land Buddhism is popular in the West today.

  JAPAN

  Fertile Territory

  Toward the end of the twelfth century, Chan arrived in Japan and became “Zen.” The samurai warrior spirit was thriving in Japan, and the rigors of Zen practice were welcomed by the Japanese. There are two classes of Zen that arose in Japan. The first was called Rinzai and was brought back from China by the Japanese monk Eisai. Eisai’s student Dogen brought the second class of Zen to Japanese shores from China. This school of Zen was called the Soto school. We’ll cover these two schools in much more detail in a chapter devoted to Zen Buddhism.

  Both schools of Zen emphasized the importance of seated meditation. Over many years, the Soto school became larger than the Rinzai school in Japan (today, it might be as much as three times as large), though both schools are still very prominent. The strictness of practice in the monasteries historically inhibited many people from practicing Zen. But as Zen headed to the West in the twentieth century, this would no longer be the case.

  NICHIREN BUDDHISM

  Another Buddhist tradition arose in Japan in the early thirteenth century. A Buddhist monk named Nichiren was the founder of this school, which came to bear his name. Nichiren studied the Lotus Sutra and came to believe it was the embodiment of Truth. He believed that by reciting Namu-myoho-renge-kyo (Glory to the Lotus Sutra) one could evoke all the wisdom contained
in its verses. The Nichiren school has proliferated into many subschools. It remains popular today in Japan and the West and includes an evangelical branch that seeks converts. Much like the Hare Krishnas, someone from this tradition may approach you at an airport or on the street and encourage you to chant the mantra Namu-myoho-renge-kyo.

  JAPANESE PURE LAND

  The Pure Land practice went from China to Japan and was practiced from the aristocracy to peasants. One important text, written by Ojoyoshu, “Birth in the Land of Purity,” helped to promote the popularity of these practices that emerged from the ninth to eleventh centuries. Honen (1133–1212) is considered the founder of the first Jodo (Pure Land) school in Japan. Honen gave up on getting to the Pure Land by personal effort. He forsook his monastic vows, took a wife, and substituted tariki (other power) for jiriki (self-power), feeling that this was more consistent with the Buddha’s original teaching. He was discouraged that no buddhas had appeared since the time of Siddhartha. He saw Pure Land Buddhism as an alternative path and Amida Butsu as the key to everything. His followers founded Jodoshin (“True Pure Land School”) that permitted its clergy to marry. The Jodoshin has persisted to contemporary times and remains the largest religious organization in Japan.